Hinduism in Modern Times
© Anup Mukherjee (Nov 2003)
Hinduism in modern times is reflection of continuity and of progressive changes that occurred in its various traditions and institutions during the 19th and 20th centuries.
By eighteenth century many ills had crept into it- superstition, social obscurantism, rigid rituals, tyrannical polytheism and abominable rites like animal sacrifice. Women were generally put through many injustices in the name of religion. The Caste system had led to segregation and untouchability. It was the reformist changes to such practices that brought about emergence of modern Hinduism.
The reform process was influenced by rational thought, western encounter and modern education and by the ideals of humanism, rationalism and religious universalism. This ‘awakening’ had different strands- combating the conservative elements, imbibing rational western outlook, adoption of western education system, countering of Christian missionary criticism, revivalistic tendencies, legal reforms and social work.
These reforms started in the Bengal province. Here, Ram Mohun Roy (1772-1833) initiated the Brahmo movement (1828, Calcutta) that looked at the ‘individual being’ as essentially divine. It stood against idolatry and made ritualism optional. By his efforts Sati (immolation of widows on pier of their husbands) was abolished. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar’s efforts led to widow remarriage becoming acceptable. He also greatly contributed towards education of women. Efforts of Keshub Chandra Sen led to initiation of process of ending child marriages and increase in the age of marriage of girls. In Western India the major proponent of reform were Gopal Hari Deshmukh, and later on M.G. Ranade and his associates. They critiqued the religious rites, and stood for modernising Hinduism. The works of these reformers overlapped religious as well as social reforms.
Two most influential reformers of late 19th century were Dayananda (1824-1883) and Vivekananda (1863-1902). Dayananda believed that Hinduism had come to be corrupted over time, and gave the call of ‘Back to the Vedas’. He started the Arya Samaj movement in 1875. It gradually became an institution in itself, and among many things, it repudiated meaningless rites and rejected worship of idols of numerous gods, stood for equal rights of man and woman, opposed untouchability and supported inter-caste marriage.
Vivekananda attended the World’s Parliament of Religions in 1893 in Chicago, and later started the Ramakrishna Mission (1897), in memory of his Guru. His views are considered the best articulation of the modern Hindu outlook. He drew spiritual inspiration from the Vedanta and Upanishads and believed in unity and equality of all religions. His outlook was of mystic universalism that was not confined to the scriptures. He was opposed to ritualism, priestly tyranny, and disabilities imposed by caste. His ideas also influenced India’s freedom movement.
Reform of the caste system took both religious as well as socio-political colours. Efforts of reformers like Jyotiba Phule, Narayan Guru, and also political leaders like M.K. Gandhi (1869-1948) and Ambedkar led to making the society more equalitarian. Through the efforts of these reformers and many others, untouchability has now come to an end. Disabilities including restriction of temple entry that were traditionally imposed on such sections of society no more exist. Gandhi also popularised an important theme of ahimsa (non-violence).
Westerners also contributed to Hinduism. Orientalists and Indologists like William Jones, Max Muller etc. brought in awareness of the past; others contributed more directly like the Theosophical Society. Theosophy was a mix of religion, philosophy and occultism. It stood for universal brotherhood and spiritual life and subscribed to the philosophy of Hinduism and its doctrines of Karma and transmigration of soul. The society became most famous during times of Annie Besant (1847-1933). It also contributed to social work and education.
Twentieth century also saw emergence of many philosophers and saints. Important among them are Aurobindo Ghosh (Auroville, Pondicherry), S. Radhakrishnan, J. Krishnamurti etc. Modern reformers and philosophers have generally emphasised on Vedanta that represents the culmination of the long Vedic tradition into the finest philosophy of Upanishads, Bhagawad Gita and Brahma Sutras. Vedanta (or Uttara Mimansa) incidentally is only one of the six systems of orthodox Hindu philosophy.
Outside India, an example of change is Indonesia (as in Bali), where Hinduism in form of ‘adat’ (tradition) has reconstructed itself to ‘agama’ (religion), which can be seen as an Indonesian variety of Hinduism.
While traditionally Hinduism is confined to countries of South Asia (India, Nepal etc) and South East Asia (Indonesia, Malaysia etc), in modern times, Hinduism also spread to distant regions of the world. The (British) Imperialists hired indentured labourers from India to work in far off places like Fiji, Mauritius, South Africa, West Indies islands, Surinam (Dutch) etc. This migration also meant movement of religion as well. Apart from this, expansion also took place to countries like USA, Canada, UK, Australia etc. These places now have many Hindu temples and organisations.
Hinduism being a plural religion displays great diversity with many gods, many scriptures, many saints and many sects. In our times, many aspects of Hinduism display continuity. Traditional authorities like Shankaracharya remain important. Pilgrimages have increased in importance. Reciting of “Mantras” from scriptures continues. But along with it, the theme of Bhakti in form of “Bhajan” (devotional hymns) have become prominent. Temple building activity has gradually taken on an unmatched sophistication.
Presently, the various sects can be broadly classified into: 1) Shaiva (followers of Shiva) 2) Smarth (pantheistic liberal Hinduism) 3) Shakta (followers of God in its female form) 4) Vaishnav (followers of Vishnu and his avatars). Under this classification many older sects have expanded. Sikhism, whose origins lie in medieval Bhakti movement, emerged from Hinduism to develop into an independent religion. Many newer sects have also emerged- an example can be ISKCON that follows Lord Krishna (Vaishnav), and is very popular in western countries.
Festivals are celebrated with much fanfare. Festivals like Deepawali and Dushera now use modern technologies of light and sound for added attraction. Many times, functions organised to celebrate these festivals display contemporary issues viz. world peace, environmental concern etc. Traditional events like the Kumbha Mela continues to be important.
Areas like Yoga (system of discipline) and Ayurveda (system of medicine) have increasingly secularised. Traditional dances that derive from religion have developed as art forms and are now taught in colleges and universities.
A new current is that of “Hindutva”. Though this movement is apparently derived from religion, it is basically a political ideology based on cultural nationalism.
In contemporary times, Hinduism is still evolving. This evolution is linked to the aspiration of people to a liberal and equalitarian society, and also to the ancient yearning of faith that remains ceaseless.
[Another related essay: Modern Hinduism]
Further Reading:
1) Vivekananda, The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda (eight vol) (Advaita Ashram, Calcutta, 1965). The complete works can also be accessed via the Internet. www.ramakrishnavivekananda.info
2) S. Radhakrishnana, 1) Indian Philosophy (two vol) (1929); 2) Eastern Religion and Western Thought (1937), (both, Oxford University Press, Delhi); 3) The Hindu View of Life (1926), (Blackie & Son, Bombay, 1979)
3) Aurobindo, among his many writings, 1) The Life Divine; 2) The Foundations of Indian Culture (both published, Sri Aurobindo Ashram, Pondicherry)
4) Gandhi, Mohandas K., Collected works of Mahatma Gandhi, (55. vol) (Publications Division, Delhi) Smaller selections as complete books are also available.
5) J. Krishnamurti, among his many writings, The First and Last Freedom, (Krishnamurti Foundation India, Madras, 1995)
6) M.N. Srinivas (1966), Social Change in Modern India, (New Delhi: Orient Longman); also, M.N. Srinivas Ed, Caste: Its Twentieth Century Avatar (Penguin, 1996)
7) Dipankar Gupta Ed, Social Stratification (Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1993)
8 ) Milton Singer, When A Great Tradition Modernizes, (Praeger, New York, 1972)
9) Eck, Diana and Francoise Mallison, Ed. Devotion Divine: Bhakti Traditions from the Regions of India, (Egbert Forsten, The Netherlands, 1991)
10) Martin Ramstedt Ed, Hinduism in Modern Indonesia, (Curzon Press, Richmond, 2001)
